The Hypothesis of the Prolonged Cell Cycle in Turner Syndrome.

Turner syndrome (TS) is a chromosomal disorder that is caused by a missing or structurally abnormal second sex chromosome. Subjects with TS are at an increased risk of developing intrauterine growth retardation, low birth weight, short stature, congenital heart diseases, infertility, obesity, dyslipidemia, hypertension, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular diseases (stroke and myocardial infarction). The underlying pathogenetic mechanism of TS is unknown. The assumption that X chromosome-linked gene haploinsufficiency is associated with the TS phenotype is questioned since such genes have not been identified. Thus, other pathogenic mechanisms have been suggested to explain this phenotype. Morphogenesis encompasses a series of events that includes cell division, the production of migratory precursors and their progeny, differentiation, programmed cell death, and integration into organs and systems. The precise control of the growth and differentiation of cells is essential for normal development. The cell cycle frequency and the number of proliferating cells are essential in cell growth. 45,X cells have a failure to proliferate at a normal rate, leading to a decreased cell number in a given tissue during organogenesis. A convergence of data indicates an association between a prolonged cell cycle and the phenotypical features in Turner syndrome. This review aims to examine old and new findings concerning the relationship between a prolonged cell cycle and TS phenotype. These studies reveal a diversity of phenotypic features in TS that could be explained by reduced cell proliferation. The implications of this hypothesis for our understanding of the TS phenotype and its pathogenesis are discussed. It is not surprising that 45,X monosomy leads to cellular growth pathway dysregulation with profound deleterious effects on both embryonic and later stages of development. The prolonged cell cycle could represent the beginning of the pathogenesis of TS, leading to a series of phenotypic consequences in embryonic/fetal, neonatal, pediatric, adolescence, and adulthood life.

Trisomy 19 and t(9;22) in a patient with acute basophilic leukemia.

We report a case of acute basophilic leukemia with two coexisting clonal abnormalities, t(9;22) and trisomy 19. The blast showed positive reaction with myeloperoxidase but negative reaction with chloroacetate esterase and acid phosphatase. Metachromatic features of the blast were observed with toluidine blue stain. Ultrastructure study showed the presence of azurophilic granules in basophils and blast mast cells. Conventional and molecular cytogenetic studies revealed, t(9;22) with BCR/ABL positive and trisomy 19 in all metaphase cells. To our knowledge, this paper here is the first to present acute basophilic leukemia with trisomy 19 and t(9;22).

[Relationship of oncogene C-erbB-2 amplification in breast cancer with pathological parameters and disease free survival]. / Relación entre la amplificación del oncogén C-erbB-2 y parámetros histológicos con sobrevida libre de enfermedad en pacientes con cáncer de mama.

BACKGROUND: Proto-oncogene c-erbB-2 is located in chromosome 17 region q21 and codifies a 185 Kd protein, with tyrosine kinase activity. The amplification of this gene is associated with relapse and lower survival in breast cancer. Overexpression of this gene can be detected by immunohistochemistry (IHC). However, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and chromogenic in situ hybridization (CISH) allow the simultaneous analysis of morphology and overexpression of the gene. AIM: To evaluate the relationship of c-erbB-2 oncogene amplification measured by FISH with histological graduation, presence of positive Iymph nodes and evolution of breast cancer. PATIENTS AND METHODS: One hundred and ten tissue samples of invasive ductal or lobulillar breast cancer, positive for c-erbB-2 oncogene by IHC were analysed. The presence of c-erbB-2 oncogene amplification was subsequently analyzed by FISH. RESULTS: There was a significant association of c-erbB-2 amplification by FISH with pathological graduation of the tumor, number of regional Iymph nodes involved and disease free survival. CONCLUSIONS: Proto-oncogene c-erbB-2 amplification is a good indicator of bad prognosis in invasive breast cancer.

Relación entre la amplificación del oncogén C-erbB-2 y parámetros histológicos con sobrevida libre de enfermedad en pacientes con cáncer de mama / Relationship of oncogene CerbB2 amplification in breast cancer with pathological parameters and disease free survival

Background:Protooncogene cerbB2 is located in chromosome 17 region q21 and codifies a 185 Kd protein, with tyrosine kinase activity. The amplification of this gene is associated with relapse and lower survival in breast cancer. Overexpression of this gene can be detected by immunohistochemistry (IHC). However, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and chromogenic in situ hybridization (CISH) allow the simultaneous analysis of morphology and overexpression of the gene. Aim: To evaluate the relationship of c-erbB2 oncogene amplification measured by FISH with histological graduation, presence of positive Iymph nodes and evolution of breast cancer. Patients and methods: One hundred and ten tissue samples of invasive ductal or lobulillar breast cancer, positive for cerbB2 oncogene by IHC were analysed. The presence of c-erbB2 oncogene amplification was subsequently analyzed by FISH. Results: There was a significant association of c-erbB2 amplification by FISH with pathological graduation of the tumor, number of regional Iymph nodes involved and disease free survival. Conclusions: Proto-oncogene cerbB2 amplification is a good indicator of bad prognosis in invasive breast cancer.

[Diminished zinc plasma concentrations and alterations in the number of lymphocyte subpopulations in Down's syndrome patients]. / Disminución de las concentraciones plasmáticas de cinc y alteraciones numéricas de subpoblaciones de linfocitos en pacientes con síndrome de down.

Alterations of plasma levels of zinc and in the immune system in Down's syndrome (DS) have been reported. These alterations have been associated with a high rate of infectious diseases, which represent the main cause of mortality in affected individuals. The objectives of this study were to determine plasma zinc levels and to evaluate the immune system in DS patients. Peripheral blood samples were obtained from 43 DS patients examined at the Unidad de Genética Médica, Universidad del Zulia in Maracaibo, Venezuela. Their mean age (+/- SD) was 2.3 +/- 2.0 years. As control group, 40 healthy children were studied (mean +/- SD 2.3 +/- 2.0 years). Karyotypes by a standard technique, the determination of plasma levels of zinc by atomic absorption spectrophotometry and the evaluation of the immune system by flow cytometry were carried out in the study groups. All DS patients had free trisomy 21. Significantly disminished zinc plasma levels, helper T lymphocyte (CD4) percentage, helper/cytotoxic (CD4/CD8) ratio and B-cells (CD19) were found in DS patients by matching with control group. An increase in CD8 was also found. No significative difference in the lymphocyte subpopulations between DS patients with disminished plasma levels of zinc and DS patients with normal zinc were found. These findings suggest that zinc deficiency is not the sole etiology involved in the disorders of immune system seen in DS patients. Other factors, such as thymic alterations and molecular abnormalities due to gene overexpression of loci located on chromosome 21 could be involved. Although, zinc supplementation is recommended in these patients with zinc deficiency, further studies with a double-blind, placebo versus zinc design are needed to evaluate the potentially beneficial effects of zinc treatment in DS patients.

Disminución de las concentraciones plasmáticas de cinc y alteraciones numéricas de subpoblaciones de linfocitos en pacientes con síndrome de Down / Disminished zinc plasma concentrations and alterations in the number of lymphocyte subpopulations in down´s syndrome patients

Se ha reportado alteración de los niveles plasmáticos de cinc y trastornos del sistema inmunitario en los pacientes con síndrome de Down (SD), lo que se ha asociado con alta tasa de enfermedades infecciosas, las cuales representan una de las principales causas de mortalidad en los individuos afectados. El objetivo de este trabajo fue determinar las concentraciones plasmáticas de cinc y evaluar el sistema inmunitario en pacientes con SD. Para esto se tomaron muestras de sangre periférica de 43 pacientes con SD con promedio de edad ± DE, de 2,3 ± 2 años; que asistieron a la Unidad de Genética Medica de la Universidad del Zulia en Maracaibo, Venezuela. Como controles se estudiaron 40 niños aparentemente sanos con promedio de edad de 2,5 ± 2,2 años. A todos los pacientes se les realizó el cariotipo según la técnica convencional, determinación de cinc por espectrofotometría de absorción atómica y citometría de flujo para evaluar el sistema inmunitario. Todos los pacientes presentaban trisomía libre del cromosoma 21. Se observó una disminución significativa de los niveles de cinc; del porcentaje de linfocitos T cooperadores (CD4), de la relación entre éstos y los linfocitos T citotóxicos (CD4/CD8) así como también, del porcentaje de células B (CD19) al compararlos con los controles. También se observó un aumento en CD8. Al comprar las subpoblaciones linfocitarias en los pacientes con SD que presentaron valores normales de cinc con aquellos que tenían valores disminuidos no se encontró diferencia estadísticamente significativa. Los resultados obtenidos en esta investigación sugieren que probablemente no sólo la deficiencia de cinc está involucrada en las alteraciones del sistema inmunitario observada en los pacientes con SD; otros factores previamente descritos, tales como las alteraciones tímicas y las anormalidades moleculares debidas a la sobreexpresión de genes localizados en el cromosoma 21, podrían estar involucrados. Aunque se recomienda la suplementación de cinc en estos pacientes con deficiencia de este oligoelemento , se necesitan estudios con diseño a doble ciego de placevo versus cinc para evaluar los potenciales efectos beneficiosos del tratamiento con cinc en pacientes con SD

Anormalidades cromosómicas clonales en enfermedades hematológicas malignas mediante fish / Clonal chromosomal abnormalities in malignant hematological diseases by fish

La hibridación in situ fluorescente (FISH) es un método rápido, sensible y confiable que permite la identificación de cromosomas completos o porciones de los mismos tanto en metafases como en núcleos en interfase. En este trabajo se analizaron 32 muestras de medula ósea de pacientes con enfermedades hematológicas malignas (11 LMA, 7 LLA, 12 LMC y 2 LLC). Estas fueron referidas a la Unidad de Genética Médica de la Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad del Zulia, Maracaibo, Venezuela durante los años 1994-1996. Todas las muestras se analizaron mediante técnicas citogenéticas convencionales y moleculares (FISH) utilizando sondas de cromosomas totales, alfa satelites y locus específicos. En los pacientes con LMA y LLA la técnica de FISH detectó anomalias cromosómicas clonales no detectadas por la técnica citogenética convencional. Así mismo, se identificó el complejo PML-alfa RARA en las leucemias promielociticas agudas. En el caso de la LMC se demostró la presencia del complejo molecular ABL-BCR. En este trabajo se demuestra la utilidad del FISH en la detección de anomalías cromosómicas clonales, las cuales son importantes en el manejo clínico de pacientes con este tipo de patologías